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This and the next 4 images are from:
J. Blachut and I.B. Iflefel (Mechanical Engineering, The University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK),
“Experimental and Numerical Investigation of Plain and Gouged Dents in Steel Pipes Subjected to Pressure and Moment Loading”, ASME Journal of Pressure Vessel Technology, Vol. 130, Article ID 021203, May 2008
ABSTRACT: Six laboratory scale, mild steel pipes with the outside diameter-to-wall-thickness ratio, Do/t about 40, were dented to about 15–20% of outside diameter Do, by a hemispherical indenter with its diameter to pipe’s outside diameter ratio, 2a/Do about 0.41. Three pipes had surface gouges running axially in them, and the remaining three were gouge free. Five of them were then collapsed by a bending moment followed by pressure burst tests. Experi- mental test data has been used to benchmark the finite element results, details of which are given in this paper. Good agreement between experimental and numerical results was obtained in the modeling of denting, but not so well in the modeling of bending— indicating the need for further work in order to address the discrepancies. DOI: 10.1115/1.2891913
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